Narrative Theory: Todorov

1. Tsvetan Todorov was a Bulgarian linguist publishing work on narrative theories from 1960 onwards.
2. Stories begin with an equilibrium or status quo where any potentially opposing forces are in balance. 
3. This is disrupted by some events or series of events.
4. The problems are solved so order can be restored.
5. There are five conventional narrative stages: A state of equilibrium by some action, a recognition that there has been a disruption, an attempt to repair the disruption and  a reinstatement of the equilibrium.
6. Mainstream film narratives ten to use this type of structure. 

Background Information:

- In total he has published 21 books

- He has been a visiting professor at several universities including Harvard, Yale and Berkely.

OCR Media Studies A2 Dynamic eBook Notes

Critical Perspectives: Writing about production

The Ten Commandments for Reflective Writing

1.     Focus on creative decisions informed by institutional knowledge.

2.     Focus on creative decisions informed by theoretical understanding.

3.     Evaluate the process instead of just describing t

4.     Relate your media to ‘real media’ at the micro level

5.     Try to deconstruct yourself

6.     Choose clearly relevant micro examples to relate to macro reflective themes

7.     Avoid binary oppositions

8.     Try to write about your broader media culture

9.     Adopt a metadiscourse

10. Quote, paraphrase and reference

Critical Perspectives: Themes

For each theme, it is mandatory to focus on the following three areas within your exam answer:

·      Historical: Must show that you understand how relevant aspects of the contemporary media can be compared to the past.

·      Contemporary: Demonstrate up to date, accurate, theoretical and academic analysis of today’s media.

·      Future: Must have some ideas about where the media are going next.

The media is a subject that is concerned with popular culture – the media that ordinary people access in large numbers.

Culture: Culture is everything that is not nature; therefore in other words, humans make culture. It also describes the various forms of belief, communication, ritual, representation and ideas that the human race uses to make sense of our existence.
Whole books are created in order to attempt answering the question ‘What Is Culture?’ Jenks describes the following four definitions of culture:
1. As a state of mind (an aspiration – the ‘cultured’ person)
2. As a collective pursuit of civilisation (as a part of progress)
3. As artistic and intellectual activity (this is perhaps the most common use of the term)
4. As a social category – the things that people do, our ways of life (which is more like where we started – how we are not animals)

The important thing for media students to remember is that within the course we are mostly interested in ‘popular culture’, and we do not distinguish between what is and what is not ‘cultural’. Everything that we study in the media and produce for the media is culture.

Social Groups: Wherever it is possible to give people a label based on collective characteristics or traits, as opposed to their individual or biological make-up, we can say they are part of a social group.

Social Values and Cultural Languages:  Depending on the theme that you study, you might consider the impact of broadband Internet on how people use media. For example, do people ‘watch television’ in the traditional sense anymore? Are there any distinct media institutions in the era of convergence?
The BBC has acted as a pioneer in the digital age, a case study on the iPlayer as an online development will very soon extend to a consideration of whether or not this is a good use of the license fee – a cornerstone of public service broadcasting in a democracy. The Internet makes the global reach of the BBC’s services possible. This takes us to a consideration of whether media increasingly shapes our identities in the online age and whether this takes up to a post-modern state of mind. 

Jurgen Habermas: Public Sphere

• Definition: "The public sphere is an area in social life where individuals can come together to freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action"
• According to Habermas, the public sphere is a product of democracy
• The concept of public opinion is the "control and criticism of organized political authority which is officially manifested by the public come elections"
• Habermas examines the history of the public sphere and suggests that in medieval times there was no seperation or distinction between the private and public sphere, due to the class pyramid of the feudal system. The system positioned greater power at every level. Rulers saw themselves to represent their power to the people instead of for the people.
• By the late 18th century feudal institutions were finally disappearing. The term "public" did no longer refer to the representation of a man with authority, but rather became the legitimate power of exercising power. The public sphere (according to Habermas), was the final stage of these developments.
• Habermas produced a book called "The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere" which has had a major impact in a variety of disciplines. 

David Gauntlett - Web 2.0

David Gauntlett is a British sociologist and media theorist who focuses on studying contemporary media audiences, as well as the role of such media in self-identity and self-expression.

Web 2.0 has enabled individuals to voice their own opinion, be creative, interact with other users and become an active audience. This is due to the shift from Web 1.0 where the audience used to simply consume information and were therefore passive. However, now the consumers are now also the producers, resulting in 'power for the people'. 

Background Information:

- Graduated from the University of York in Sociology in 1992

- 2006- joined the School of Media, Arts and Design as a Professor of Media and Communications

- He focused on the way that media was changing the overall experience itself, as well as culture

Media 2.0

- He produced 'Media Studies 2.0' online in 2007, which suggests that classic media studies fail to define when the categories of 'audiences' and 'producers' unit, and that due to this, new, altered teaching methods are needed.

- 'Consumers are producers' - It is now easier for consumers to produce their own information through the media nowadays as the necessary equipment is easily accessible and free. For example, through social networking sites such as Twitter and Facebook and successful websites such as YouTube where individuals can share videos, creating their own identity, influencing others and sharing their opinions.

- 'Making is Connecting' - highlights consumers becoming an active audience. He expressed this view through a 'lego metaphor' which suggests that the connection between making and sharing things can be described through the use of objects. 

- The concept of Web 2.0 was put forward by Tim O'Reilly in 2005 who wrote an article on the subject and published it on the web. 

-  In relation to my product, it is evident that the viewers have become consumers as those who are members of my target audience are also a part of my documentary. This is because some of my footage is recorded by a group of 17-21 year olds who are attending a festival. This indicates that individuals who are of this age are not only able to consume television programmes, but are now also able to be a part of the programmes by recording the experience as it is now socially acceptable, realistic and popular with the demographic. 

Audience Theories

Stuart Hall: Reception Theory 

• The Reception theory is where the producer will encode the text in a certain way to convey a desired message. The theory is a version of reader response literacy theory that emphasizes the reader's reception of literacy text. It could be argued that theory is now outdated as it was said to be the most influential during the 1970s and early 1980s, however, it is evident that it also relevant today in some cases.
• Stuart Hall stressed the role of social positioning in the interpretations of mass media texts consumed by different social groups.
• The theory argues that the audience would respond to this message in three different ways, as displayed below.
• Preferred/ Dominant Reading: This refers to the reading whereby the viewer shares the desired opinion that the producer wants them to have. Due to this, the reader fully shares the texts code and accepts+ reproduces the preferred reading in such a stance that the code seems natural and transparent. For example, a McDonald's advert which displays an image of a burger would want the audience to crave the burger and therefore purchase it. Those who look at a text with the dominant reading, would be the section of an audience that would take this action. 
• Negotiated Reading: This is where the reader accepts some of the preferred reading, however will refine their view based on their own experiences, opinions and knowledge. The consumer would therefore resist and modify the text in a way which reflects their own position. For example: Whilst referring to the McDonalds's advert, unlike those with the dominant reading, negotiating readers would weigh up the pros and cons and state something such as "The burger does look nice, however it is bad for me, therefore I will make sure that I do not purchase one today, and instead only once a month". 
• Oppositional Reading: Oppositional Reading is also known as 'counter-hegemonic'' reading, where the reader will think the complete opposite of what the producer intended them too. Their social situation places them in a directly oppositional relation to the dominant code, understands  the preferred reading, however does not share the texts message and instead decides to reject the meaning. For example: Whilst looking at the concept of a McDonalds advert, the viewer would think that the burger looks unpleasant and would feel no desire to purchase the product. Members of this section of the audience would be people such as athletes, those who are healthy/ on a diet and those who work in Mcdonalds. Due to this, they would associate this burger with different thinks and share different views.
• It could be argued that these three responses could relate to how the viewers of my documentary will respond. It could be interpreted that the Dominant Readers would therefore accept the message that I have encoded into the programme which states that all teenagers are rebellious, vulnerable and that underage drinking is an increasing problem. The consumers of my product would agree with this stereotype and therefore share this opinion of teenagers.

Audience Theories

Hypodermic Syringe Theory:

• 1920's 
• looks at the effect that the media has on the audience and how the media 'injects' us with their desired meaning, which we then passively accept. 
• It could be argued that this theory is now outdated but still sometimes assumed to be true by the government and tabloids. For example: violent video games are said to damage children as they cause them to be violent, therefore the games need to be banned.
• 'Moral panic' is created through websites such as the Daily Mail through their exaggeration of stories such as the horse meat scandal
• It could be argued that this theory relates to my upcoming documentary as it aims to send a message to the audience that teenagers are rebellious, breaking the law and are put in vulnerable situations whilst attending festivals, fulfilling the stereotype of how they are perceived in wider society. It would 'inject' the audience with the meaning that teenagers are risk takers.
• http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Mass%20Media/Hypodermic_Needle_Theory.doc/

Two Step Flow:

• A slightly more sophisticated version of the hypodermic syringe theory.
• The message is transmitted to the audience via a small group of 'opinion leaders' 
• The general audience receive the media message, filtered through the thoughts of the opinion leaders. For example: celebrities on Twitter may express their opinion about a certain matter, causing a majority of their fan base to then share this same view. These opinion leaders have an influence on the general audience. (effects from social media)
• http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Levels%20of%20theories/macro/Two-Step%20Flow%20Theory.doc/

Uses and Gratifications:

• Blumer and Katz expanded an earlier theory in 1974
• The audience choose their media text to fulfill different needs that they have
• Following reasons to choose a text: diversion, personal relationships, personal identity, survelliance.
• Criticisms of the theory state that it focuses on the individual and therefore does not take the pressures of wider society into account. Another disadvantage of the theory is that it does not account for the media that is consumed with no choice. For example: bus advertisements, music in the background of adverts/programmes etc.
• http://www.utwente.nl/cw/theorieenoverzicht/Theory%20clusters/Communication%20and%20Information%20Technology/Uses_and_Gratifications_Approach-1.doc/